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Table of Contents
Introduction
Introduction
"Low-lying coastal regions host nearly 10% of the world's population. In addition to ongoing erosion and rising sea levels, these areas and their unique ecosystems are facing destructive hazards, including episodic flooding due to overtopping of natural/artificial protection, as in the case of Hurricane Katrina, which hit the United States in 2005, Cyclone Xynthia in Europe in 2010, and Typhoon Haiyan in Asia in 2013 (the largest tropical cyclone ever measured). These episodic events are expected to become more severe and more frequent due to global warming, while the consequences will also increase due to increased anthropogenic pressure, such as coastal and infrastructure development, rapid urbanization. Although the magnitude and frequency of these events remain uncertain, scientists believe that countries in the tropics will be particularly affected." - An Acceleration of Coastal Overtopping Around the World
"The combination of tides and episodes of large waves is the main contributor to episodes of coastal overflow," says Rafaël Almar, a researcher in coastal dynamics at IRD, and the coordinator of the study. "We identified hot-spots, where the increase in risks of overtopping is higher, such as in the Gulf of Mexico, the Southern Mediterranean, West Africa, Madagascar and the Baltic Sea."
"The scientists also performed an initial global assessment of the potential coastal overtopping over the 21st century, by taking into account different sea-level rise scenarios. Results show that the number of overtopping hours could increase with a faster pace than the average rate of sea-level rise. "The frequency of overtopping is accelerating exponentially and will be clearly perceptible as early as 2050, regardless of the climate scenario. By the end of the century, the intensity of the acceleration will depend on the future trajectories of greenhouse gas emissions and therefore the rise in sea-level. In the case of a high emissions scenario, the number of overtopping hours globally could increase fifty-fold compared with current levels," Rafaël Almar warns. "As we go along the 21st century, more and more regions will be exposed to overtopping and consequent coastal flooding, especially in the tropics, north-western United States, Scandinavia, and the Far East of Russia."
Further studies will be needed on the local and regional levels to flesh out these global projections, which provide a solid basis for proposing effective adaptation measures in the hotspots identified." - An Acceleration of Coastal Overtopping Around the World
Dangers of Coastal Overtopping
Dangers of Coastal Overtopping
Flooding
Flooding
Perhaps the most obvious impact of coastal overtopping is the flooding which brings property damage, and poses various dangers to communities.
Sunny Day Flooding
Sunny Day Flooding
This happens when there is no rain or storms, but can be caused by king tides. Thanks to climate change, these once-rare occurrences, are becoming yearly, monthly, or even weekly for coastal communities around the world.
Sea Water Intrusion
Sea Water Intrusion
This happens with waterways, as tides bring seawater further past the mouth of these waterways, killing freshwater species, and causing other problems. Thanks to sea level rise, this problem is getting worse, and to the point that some coastal communities which traditionally relied on their local waterways for freshwater, are now finding their drinking water contaminated by sea salt.
Seawater intrusion is also an issue when seawater makes its way into aquifers. This can happen via waterways, or via coastal overtopping.
Solutions
Solutions
Prevention
Flood Prevention Measures
Water-Wise Gardening this could include rain gardens or xeriscaping
Reduce Emissions
Transition Away from Fossil Fuels
Use/Provide Public Transportation
Insulate Buildings
End Light Pollution
Prevent or Slow Ice Melt
Planned Retreat
Ban Building in Flood Planes
Buy Out Programs & Plans for Existing Settlements
Adaptation
Flood-Proof Public Transportation
Raised Buildings & Infrastructure
Managed Retreat
Managed Retreat
"... the purposeful movement of people, buildings and other assets from areas vulnerable to hazards—has often been considered a last resort. But Siders said it can be a powerful tool for expanding the range of possible solutions to cope with rising sea levels, flooding and other climate change effects when used proactively or in combination with other measures." - Managed Retreat: A Must in the War Against Climate Change
Buy Out Programs
Buy Out Programs
Buyout programs can help residents with limited financial assets safely move to safer locations, while the acquired land can be used for coastal defenses and carbon sequestration.
Indicators
Indicators
When considering our options, including managed retreat we need to be aware of the resources and warning signs that may indicate it is time to leave an area or start mitigation practices.
Ghost Forests
Ghost Forests
Communities will need to decide which areas they allow to become ghost forests and which will need to be protected by seawalls or other options. Communities may choose to allow ghost forests to turn into salt marshes, while picking new places for replacement trees to be planted. Strategic tree planting, especially along water ways can help recreate riparian buffers that will minimize erosion, sedimentation, pollution, and flooding higher in the watershed, which could allow for better protection along new coastlines.
Salination of soil and Aquifers
Salination of soil and Aquifers
"Sea-level rise, in combination with increased groundwater pumping can increase saltwater intrusion in groundwater aquifers. Saltwater intrusion into groundwater aquifers can increase treatment costs for drinking water facilities or render groundwater wells unusable.
As the sea levels rise, the “salt front” (location of the freshwater-saltwater line) may progress further upstream. This encroachment may be further exacerbated by drought, reduced rainfall or changes in water use and demand. Saltwater intrusion can result in the need for water utilities to increase treatment, relocate water intakes, or development of alternate sources of fresh water.
Saltwater intrusion, through surface or ground water sources, may diminish the availability or quality of source waters for drinking water utilities."
Factors to Consider for Managed Retreat
Factors to Consider for Managed Retreat
Create and Enforce Legislation Banning New Developments in Flood Zones
Create and Enforce Legislation Banning New Developments in Flood Zones
In areas without this type of legislation, many people have been sold home in known flood zones, within 100 year flood zones, and other unsuitable places. These homes are prone to repeated flooding which can push families into a poverty situation where they are unable to sell their homes (because they flood repeatedly) which leaves them without the funds to leave or keep rebuilding. Governments need to offer buy-out programs and work with conservation organizations to clear the badly-placed buildings. The land can function as both wild space and as permeable land to help absorb future flood waters, protecting nearby communities.
Relocation Site Choices
Relocation Site Choices
If your plan is to move people and communities, you need to ensure the next place isn't going to be in imminent danger of sea level rise as it runs its course, or any other natural disasters.
5 Best (and Worst) Places to Build a Home or Village
This 10:33 minute video talks about how different locations can be more dangerous in respect to floods and fires, or advantageous in respect to view, resources, and utility efficiency.
There is more about this topic on the Flooding page.
Coastal Defenses
Coastal Defenses
Preserve Wetlands, Waterways, and Mangroves
Preserve Wetlands, Waterways, and Mangroves
Mangroves not only help prevent soil erosion, but help protect communities against hurricanes and other extreme weather. They have unique biodiversity, and serve many functions but are under threat from climate change, and human activities. Wetlands provide vital flood prevention with large spaces for overflow and absorption to take place. The vegetation both helps water sink into the soil and respirate back into the atmosphere. These wild areas also play a massive roll in preserving biodiversity for migrant and native species of fish, birds, and other wildlife. These in turn provide economic opportunities to the communities that preserve those ecosystems, while absorbing pollution so that it can do less harm.
Mangroves
Some places have been washed away so quickly after mangrove removal, that artificial barriers need to be build. Soon after soil has begun to rebuild, which may make mangrove replanting measures more likely to succeed.
Click the Mangrove button to learn more about mangroves or the Trees button to learn about free and affordable tree programs.
Salt Water Intrusion
Salt Water Intrusion
Install low-head dam for saltwater wedge and freshwater pool separation "Rising sea levels, combined with reductions in freshwater runoff due to drought, will cause the salt water-freshwater boundary to move further upstream in tidal estuaries. Upstream shifts of this boundary can reduce the water quality of surface water resources. Installation of low-head dams across tidal estuaries can prevent this upstream movement." -
Green Space Expansion
Green Space Expansion
Green space is our greatest natural defense against flooding. These green spaces can be renovated to de-compact the soil and build flood mitigation infrastructure including reservoirs and swales. Ecologically these areas increase biodiversity, and can help expand our range of wildlife corridors which will further protect wildlife against the threats of extinction caused by fractured habitats. Keystone species, particularly beavers should be allowed to colonize these areas, providing flood protection in areas where human/animal interactions can be minimized.
Buy Out Programs
Buy Out Programs
Buyouts help protect our most vulnerable citizens who, especially after many floods and damaging storms may not have the funds to keep rebuilding, nor to move away from dangerous, flood-prone areas. From a fiscal standpoint buyout programs reduce flood risk which reduces government liability and increased poverty which in turn increases strain on public funding.
Pollution
Pollution
Pollution Sites Must be Maintained and kept far from Places that are expected to experience Flooding based on history or the proposed flood/sea level rise forecasts.
Sewage Facilities Need to be Revamped to Withstand or Work with Nature
Illegal sewage releases are becoming more common thanks to more frequent flooding and larger populations than some of these sewage facilities were designed to serve. Sewage releases during floods threatens water safety, and can spread deadly diseases to rescue workers, flood victims, wildlife, and domestic animals.
Water Management
Water Management
Finance & Facilitate Systems to Recycle Water
Finance & Facilitate Systems to Recycle Water
If communities can't move and are already suffering the effects of seawater intrusion on their drinking water supply, then water recycling may help fill the humanitarian gap of access to safe water posed by salination of surface and ground water supplies.
Click the Grey Water button to learn more about recycling gently used water for uses including flushing toilets and watering gardens.
Click the Harvesting Water button and scroll or click in the Table of Contents to navigate down to the Water Recycling section where we have info about Tap to Toilet Water Recycling and Grey Water.
Practice Conjunctive Water Use
Practice Conjunctive Water Use
"Conjunctive use involves the coordinated, optimal use of both surface water and groundwater, both intra- and inter-annually. Aquifer storage and recovery is a form of conjunctive use. For example, a utility may store some fraction of surface water flows in aquifers during wet years and withdraw this water during dry years when the river flow is low. Depending on whether natural or artificial aquifer recharge is employed, the required infrastructure may include percolation basins and injection wells." - EPA: Climate Impacts of Water Utilities
Return Land Drained for Grazing to it's Natural State
Return Land Drained for Grazing to it's Natural State
Reducing the consumption of animal products such as beef, wool, dairy, etc. will help reduce or even reverse our encroachment into wild places that traditionally acted as sponged for rain water. Some of these areas were actively pumped dry to allow grazing at the expense of valuable wetlands and forests, then over time compaction from animal hooves had mad many of these places suffer from increased erosion and soil compaction which stops water from penetrating. This means that fields can become prime causes of pollution and erosion, adding to flooding problems instead of working naturally as undisturbed wild places to do mitigate flooding.
Grazing uses the most land, is less efficient, meaning that "grass-fed" livestock take longer to reach slaughter-size while using more resources, and generally does not provide all of the benefits often touted by the livestock industry. For example carbon sequestration through well managed grazing, even in the best circumstances cannot reach a point of neutrality. The manure ends up directly on the ground where it can wash into water ways without any type of processing to reduce disease risk. Grazing is also the greatest cause of deforestation, which is problematic since trees are vital to water sequestration, fighting erosion, and reducing flood risk.
Ending subsidies to these operations would help prevent further destruction and expansion from this sector, while programs designed to support ranchers as they convert to plant-based agriculture will ensure that these people are supported in their time of need, while food and water security is ensured for everyone.
Click the Alternatives to Livestock button if you are a farmer who wants to find a more planet-friendly alternatives to raising animals or animal feed.
Plant Based Shift
Plant Based Shift
Altering Our Farming Priorities via Diet Shifts, Wiser Distribution of Farming Subsidies to Help Farmers Transition to Sustainable Alternatives Away from Those Causing the Most Water Stress and Pollution How we raise our food is deeply tied to water shortages, flooding, water pollution, and poor land management including deforestation and draining wetlands to create artificial grazing land can add significant, costly complications to these issues. With most of our land used to raise livestock which give a relatively tiny percentage of protein and calories in return, critically rethinking our dietary systems and land use practices could relieve significant amount of room to rehome people, grow enough food for our growing population, AND perhaps even return damaged land to the wild for better flood mitigation. Below are some key issues that can provide the most impactful returns at the least cost to consumers or policy makers.
Click the Plant Based button to learn more about switching to plant-based alternatives.
Vertical Farms
Vertical Farms
These are perhaps best known for reducing water use in food production, however they can also provide resiliency against major events such as flooding. Crops left soaking in wet soil can become weak, or simply die and rot which threatens us with food insecurity while farmers and farm workers lose valuable income. Vertical farms are best suited for the types of crops eaten by humans: leafy greens, herbs, as well as fruits including berries, tomatoes, and cucumbers. They are not suited for crops commonly fed to livestock such as corn or other grains.
Eliminate Feed Lots, Factory Farms, and Manure Lagoons in Flood Prone Areas
Eliminate Feed Lots, Factory Farms, and Manure Lagoons in Flood Prone Areas
Along water ways or in flood prone areas, these facilities endanger water safety. During major storms, farmers were unable to drain manure lagoons ahead of major storms which caused fecal mater and other contagious materials to flood into people's homes. Factory farm buildings filled with thousands of chickens and pigs were left to flood with the animals un-evacuated, meaning that after the flood waters receded, they were filled with rotting animal corpses, presenting further threat of dangerous diseases to nearby communities. - https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/11/04/500701098/manure-happens-especially-when-hog-farms-flood
At the absolute least, any farmers already in these areas or applying for building approval should be required to submit their plan for full animal evacuation in the event of these storms as well as infrastructure to eliminate the risk of flooding manure into waterways or nearby communities. Similarly zoos, dog boarders, and other such facilities should be discouraged in flood-prone areas or areas that may contaminate waterways.
Click the Contact Your Representative button to tell your local leaders about this issue.
Tools & Apps
Tools & Apps
Water Pumping
Water Pumping
The pumping of water takes a larger amount than many people realize. Pumping ground water for agricultural, industry, or public use, moving it between facilities, etc. all require energy since water is a fairly heavy substance.
STEEP "is a free Excel-based reference guide that can be used to make system assessments and identify potential areas for energy use savings in existing or planned water supply and wastewater facility projects."
Resources
Resources
North America
North America
USA
USA
Coastal Restoration Toolkit: Coastal Flooding "Find tools and information you need to launch a restoration project in your community."
Maps & Tools
Maps & Tools
Maps by Region Check specific State and Country pages to see if there are more specific maps, tools, projects, and groups for specific areas. If you have suggestions, we would love to hear what else we can include. Some states and countries have more detailed watershed, county, and city level maps. Other topic sections such as plastic, agriculture may be worth checking to understand how pollution enters our water ways, and how industries might endanger water sources without proper regulation, mitigation, or clean up systems to protect communities from these threats.
North America
North America
USA
USA
Coastal Flood Exposure Mapper "Jumpstart community discussions about local coastal flooding hazards by developing maps that show the people, places, and natural resources at risk."
USA Flood Factor Interactive map can be used to find specific addresses, and see how historical flooding as affected existing roads and neighborhoods. Please scroll down in page to find the partial US map, or type in an address and scroll down to find the interactive map.
NOAA Flood Map Check specific State and Country pages to see if there are more specific maps, tools, projects, and groups in your area. If you have suggestions, we would love to hear what else we can include. Some states have watershed, county, and city level maps. Other sections such as plastic, agriculture may be worth checking to understand how pollution enters our water ways, and how industries might endanger water sources without proper regulation, mitigation, or clean up systems to protect communities from these threats.
Stormwater Management and Restoration Tracking (SMART) Tool (Interactive) Tool tracks storm water management practices in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed which spans, Delaware, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia
USGS Ground Water Depletion in the United States 1900-2008 (PDF) understanding which area are suffering worst from ground water depletion can help us build better water management systems which could convert flood and rain waters back into aquifers. This would both ensure drinking and irrigations for future generations, as well as stabilizing soil which increasingly threatens building, road, and dam foundations in water-depleted regions.
Organizations
Organizations
Asia
Asia
Cambodia
Cambodia
Cambodian Rural Development Team
Department of Freshwater Wetland Conservation, Cambodian Ministry of Environment
NatureLife Cambodia
Africa
Africa
Madagascar
Madagascar
The Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust " We conserve, restore and create wetlands, and inspire everyone to value the amazing things healthy wetlands can do for us." "Since 1960, over 60% of Madagascar’s wetlands are estimated to have been lost. Those remaining are subject to an array of pervasive threats including sedimentation, pollution and over-harvesting." "Lake Sofia is a Ramsar site – an accreditation given to the world’s most important wetlands through the intergovernmental Ramsar Convention. It is one of 21 Ramsar Sites in Madagascar. Few have Management Plans and conservation managers have little capacity to assess the condition of, and threats to, their sites. Currently, those involved in the conservation and management of wetlands work in isolation, and the lack of a functioning National Ramsar Committee for wetlands has resulted in missed opportunities to influence decisions around planning and regulatory frameworks that can have a significant impact on the health of these vital ecosystems."
Europe
Europe
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust "We conserve, restore and create wetlands, and inspire everyone to value the amazing things healthy wetlands can do for us." They work in multiple countries, but mostly the UK to preserve and rehabilitate wetlands as well as the water ways that feed them. Projects include
North America
North America
USA
USA
Anthropocene Alliance (A2) "has almost 300 member-communities in 41 U.S. states and territories. They are impacted by flooding, toxic waste, wildfires, and drought and heat — all compounded by reckless development and climate change. The consequence is broken lives and a ravaged environment.
The goal of A2 is to help communities fight back. We do that by providing them organizing support, scientific and technical guidance, and better access to foundation and government funding. Most of all, our work consists of listening to our frontline leaders. Their experience, research, and solidarity guide everything we do, and offer a path toward environmental and social justice.
Supported by outstanding partner organizations with expertise in engineering, hydrology, public health, planning, and the law, A2 leaders have successfully halted developments in climate-vulnerable areas; implemented nature-based hazard mitigation strategies; organized home buyouts; and pushed for clean-ups at superfund sites, toxic landfills, and petrochemical plants.
We support everyone we can, but our special priority is people who have suffered the worst environmental impacts for the longest time; that usually means low-income, Black, Latinx, Native American and other underserved communities.
To learn about our policies, read our A 10-Point Platform on Climate Change."
Bayouland Conservancy "We preserve land along streams for flood control, clean water, and wildlife."
Grants & Funding
Grants & Funding
Asia
Asia
Livable Cities: Financing Partnership Facility "The urban operations of ADB benefits from the support of notable trust funds, which are collectively referred to as the Urban Financing Partnership Facility. Under this umbrella, strategic, long-term, multi-partner investments on innovative urban solutions are implemented. These investments help to achieve the vision of livable cities." These include:
Urban Climate Change Resilience Trust Fund (UCCRTF) eligible countries include Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, and Vietnam.
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